Roots of Abundance: Saving the World, One Grain at a Time

According to Courtney White, author of Grass, Soil, Hope: A Journey Through Carbon Country, "In America, as in most nations, economic theory and practice is dominated by scarcity thinking, which is the belief that there's not enough of something to go around...scarcity thinking is fear-based; it compels us to do things like hoard, compete, fight--and act greedily, selfishly, and dishonestly. It creates winners and losers. In contrast, abundance thinking is the belief that there's plenty for everyone. Soil is a classic example. There's a lot of good, rich soil in the nation...By employing the lens of abundance thinking, we can suddenly see the world as bountiful and hopeful."

I have been guilty of scarcity thinking too, found myself looking at just about everything through a lens of scarcity. Lack of farmland, dwindling supplies of precious fossil fuels, a shortage of political heroes, inadequate access to clean water, not enough money or jobs or aid for Haiti or Syria--the list could go on and on. But this is exactly the thinking that caused our current predicaments--fear of terrorism that started wars that validated our fear, fear of dwindling commodity prices that made western farmers deepen their debt to grow ever-larger monocultures of wheat, soy & canola, fear of pests that made them spray and cause resistance, fear of weeds that made us organic farmers till until we were exhausted and the weeds had learned to set seed in two weeks. All of our anxiety about resources drying up has drawn the reserves down further and made our problems worse.

Scarcity vs. Abundance & the Carbon Bank
When we switch to abundance thinking, we can focus instead on building up the valuable resources we do have--like the soil.
As Dorn Cox (a Wall Street securities broker-turned carbon farmer) put it, "The soil here is like a bank to which I'm making a deposit of carbon that will create a natural form of compound interest...The true costs of conventional agriculture, which must include a full accounting of fossil fuel extraction and pollution, far exceed the biological rate of return. These costs deplete bank accounts by removing their carbon deposits. No-till, in contrast, builds compound interest and creates real wealth because it builds life in the soil."

Real Wealth
It may seem unrealistic to equate carbon with money in this sense - but if you consider that carbon makes up everything you work for, from the fuel in your car to the food on your plate, the walls of your house, the cells in your body and the dollar bill in your pocket, you realize that this is the real currency. According to White's book, A 2 percent increase in the world's soil carbon could absorb all of our atmosphere's excess within ten years. Such an increase would not only solve our climate change problem but would increase soil fertility, aggregate stability, water retention and the nutrient density of our food by orders of magnitude. (White points out that our food is much less nutritious than even 30 years ago; it is not uncommon to find oranges on the market today that contain zero vitamin C. You can eat yourself sick and still not get the vitamins you need from today's produce because our soil no longer contains these minerals in adequate amounts.)

Fortunately for us, farmers are uniquely poised to turn this whole mess around - they can literally mine carbon from the atmosphere and lock it underground, building fertility for generations to come while producing better-quality food. More fortunately, scientists, farmers and plant breeders are now working together to develop regenerative systems that not only produce well but also accurately measure and build soil carbon - real wealth. Thanks to a small group of revolutionary growers, we know how to grow no-till vegetables - but how do we sequester carbon while producing vast acreage of the bulk of our carbohydrate (energy) intake - grains?

The Land Institute's deep-rooted Kernza wheat (R), and annual wheat (L)

Perennial Grains
For many years organic farmers have followed the work of The Land Institute, a group of researchers in Kansas dedicated to perennializing grains, eliminating the need for tillage while utilizing species with much longer root systems (and therefore water and carbon-holding capacity). Perennializing wheat may sound like a simple matter of plant breeding - but in reality it takes many, many years of work. The plant breeders of the Land Institute have a unique evolutionary challenge to overcome; namely, that perennial plants tend to produce fewer, and smaller seeds than annuals, which depend on large, abundant seeds for species survival. In spite of these challenges, the Land Institute has made progress and recently released their first perennial wheat, called Kernza. According to their website, the wheat seed produced is currently about 1/5 the size of commercial annual wheat, and is lower in gluten (less suitable for bread). But the new perennial wheat is getting people excited, and Patagonia Provisions is using exclusively Kernza wheat in its new Long Root Ale. The Land Institute is also breeding perennial sunflowers (Silphium) and sorghum.

Perennial polyculture at the Land Institute

Perennial Grain Polycultures
The Land Institute researchers know that nothing grows in isolation--a meadow or prairie must be comprised of a variety of species for resilience, and this is a powerful lesson for us humans. We have seen the weakness of industrial agriculture, how vulnerable monoculture is to severe weather, to climate change, disease and pests, how it scratched away the thick skin of prairie topsoil that once covered America and left a thin sheet of gray lifeless dust behind. We are finally becoming aware that it does not yield better than diversified systems, and that the combination of constant tillage, soil kept bare with herbicides and short roots of annual crops results in devastatingly rapid erosion...it's as though we learned nothing from the Great Depression. Fortunately, The Land Institute isn't stopping with perennial monocultures - they're now focused on developing combinations of perennial plants that grow well together. Perennial polycultures of long-rooted edible grains not only survive extreme weather better, but provide farmers with a kind of insurance protecting crops and the carbon bank. They both mitigate and prepare for the effects of climate change.

Rodale's Roller-Crimper

Crimped No-Till Grains
As we await the arrival of more
perennial grains, there is a new system for growing no-till grains organically that we can embrace. Thanks to years of R&D conducted by the Rodale Institute, growers like Dorn Cox of Tuckaway Farm in New Hampshire have embraced a more carbon-friendly system for growing grains. Tuckaway is especially carbon-friendly because they produce their own biodiesel from canola, but the system would be an improvement even if they didn't.
They use an implement developed by Rodale called the Roller-Crimper, a large metal cylinder covered in a raised chevron (tractor tire) pattern that rolls in front of a tractor or behind horses, effectively crushing and killing weeds but leaving them in place to keep the soil mulched. The cylinder is hollow and can be filled or emptied of water to change the crushing pressure. Ideally, at the same time the crimper is being dragged over the field, a drill seeder implement is sowing the next grain or legume crop, which can then grow up through the crimped, dying mulch. Like any system dependent on complexity as opposed to herbicides, crimped no-till grains aren't without challenges; it's important to crimp at the right stage, and fields can become weedy if the crop germinates unevenly. But farmers like Cox are not only making it work - achieving yields comparable to conventional grain production - but seeing rapid increases in soil organic matter as they cease tilling and spraying, instead opting for a natural cover crop that keeps the soil covered year-round.

Oats and native grasses at Winona

Pasture-Cropping
Farmers in the arid Western US are only now hitting a wall when it comes to resources depleted by climate change. Farmers in Australia, on the other hand, have been fighting this battle for centuries - and a few more recent ones have been winning, in spite of years of degradation caused by tillage. On his family's 2,000 acre Winona Farm in New South Wales, Colin Seis has been rebuilding soil and the farm's fortunes with pasture-cropping, an integrated system of growing both livestock and grains on the same piece of land. The system works because of the relationship between C3, or cool-season plants (like cereal grains), C4, or warm-season plants (like native grasses), and livestock.
Basically, the cereal crop (C3) plant is drilled into the native grass mixture (C4) in the winter, while it's dormant. The reduced competition allows the cereal crop to grow and mature before the native grass begins vigorous growth, and the removal of the cereal crop then frees more resources for the grasses to thrive. In the fall when the C4 grasses are one more going dormant, livestock are allowed to graze the grass and crop residue, fertilizing and removing weeds in preparation for the next seeding.
By using this pasture-cropping system, Seis has returned the family farm to profitability and the soil to native grasslands, increased the farm's sheep carrying-capacity, eliminated the use of fertilizers and plows, increased minerals and nutrients 150%, and increased soil carbon 203% in ten years. Perhaps most impressively, he is able to achieve the same yields as conventional cropping, with oat yields averaging about 2.5 tons per acre (in addition to the meat and wool products he produces).

These are just a few of the cutting-edge methods being used by regenerative farmers around the world, and more will certainly be developed. By shifting to these proven techniques for building soil fertility, we can begin to sequester carbon deep in the soil, rather than just on the vulnerable surface. By thinking about the abundance of carbon in the atmosphere as a valuable source of soil fertility that can feed the world, we can begin to address the challenges that we face as 21st century agrarians.

FEAST! A Checklist for Seasonal Eating (Part 1)

You can teach a man to fish or grow a garden, but if he doesn't know how to cook, he'll still starve. One tragic side-effect of grocery stores piled with the same bland produce all year is that many Americans have lost their awareness of the seasonality of food. This knowledge is rapidly returning in communities like Vermont, where many CSAs, farmers markets and restaurants buy from local farms and producers - and occasionally the seasonal trend even gets a bit stuffy (I mean how many times can one eat butternut squash bisque in October?!) That being said, by getting a little creative and taking advantage of local ingredients at their peak of quality and freshness, I have found a deeper connection with nature and the myriad ways it can nourish and satisfy through the seasons.

Here are a few ways to make the most of this time of year:

Preserve your herbs. Herbs are among the simplest crops to preserve - just hang them to dry in bundles, make herb salt, or chop and freeze in ice cube trays with a little oil. If you want to keep the fresh-herb goodness around a few months longer, dig up your basil, rosemary and parsley and plant them in a big pot near a south-facing window, using a spray bottle or a tray of stones placed below to keep the humidity up. Just be sure to harvest or dig the plants before they're damaged by frost! 

Make fried green tomatoes (and freeze any extras). This southern favorite is just as suitable for northern folks when the cooler weather arrives and tomatoes must be harvested, ripe or not. You can finish ripening the almost-there ones on a windowsill, but if you've still got more than you can handle eating now, slice and bread the extras with egg, salt and fine cornmeal (but don't fry!), place on a baking sheet and freeze until solid. Bags of frozen breaded tomatoes can be pulled from the freezer and fried up for quick and satisfying meals later on.

Magic Soup Starter

Mix up some sauerkraut. Harness the amazing powers of fermentation to a bucketload of chopped cabbage, and you get delicious, immune-defending sauerkraut for way cheaper than the store-bought stuff. It's easy to do with buckets or crocks (if you have them), can be done in a weekend afternoon, perfectly satisfies those weird winter cravings for sour things, and the vitamin and probiotic content help keep you and your gut flora healthy. Also try Katie Spring's Magic Soup Starter for a salt-preserved alternative to vegetable stock!

Bring in tender plants. If you're a plant collector like me, then chances are you have some maybe-not-quite-hardy plants that have been enjoying the summer outside (I'm looking at lemongrass, colocasias and the bizarre cone-shaped orostachys in my garden). I know these aren't all food plants, but having houseplants definitely improves winter air quality (and quality of life).

Pick apples & fall raspberries. There are few headier experiences than picking your own fruit - the long light, crisp air and very act of hunting for the fragrant treasures combine to produce a unique sort of euphoria that Adam Leith Gollner, author of The Fruit Hunters, describes as "the realm of the sublime." Apples can be kept in the fridge for months as long as they're separated from all other veggies (they give off a ripening gas that causes spoilage). You can also rent a cider press, dry them in rings, or make pie and applesauce. Raspberries, on the other hand, start to spoil almost immediately - bake with them or eat them fresh, then freeze the rest on baking trays and place in freezer bags once they're solid.

Seed garlic (L), eating garlic (R)

Order and plant garlic. If you haven't ordered garlic yet, this is the time to do it! Most seed garlic sells out by early October, and if there are specific varieties you want, it's extra important to order before they sell out. My hands-down favorite variety is Music, thanks to its giant cloves and ease of peeling. You don't need to plant for a while yet - mid-October is common - so you still have plenty of time to plan and prepare your garlic bed. When the time comes, select the largest heads and split up the cloves just prior to planting. While I generally do not advocate the use of black plastic mulch, this is the one scenario where I do.  Garlic has a very long season (you'll be harvesting in June of next year) and it's nearly impossible to keep weeds from taking over without it.

Make magical stuffed squash. The things I most look forward to about fall are mulled cider and stuffed squash. Mulled cider is just mulling spices simmered with cider - but the possibilities for stuffed squash are endless, keeping this nourishing and long-storing vegetable interesting for months. Here's my formula for an absolutely delicious and fool-proof meal: 

BAKE whole, seeded dumpling, kuri, buttercup or acorn squash on a sheet pan, face down, until flesh is soft throughout.
COOK grain (such as farro, wild rice or another slightly chewy grain) with dried mushrooms or vegetable stock (removing whole mushrooms when done).
FILL squash with alternating layers of cooked grain, grated cheese, chopped greens (kale or spinach), herbs, nuts (such as toasted walnuts or pepitas) and dried fruits (such as cranberries, raisins or figs), topping with cheese to close.
BAKE for 15 more minutes & serve!





 

The Carbon Farmers: In Search of the Future of Agriculture

Jean-Martin Fortier, The Market Gardener

In January of last year, I was working at an agricultural conference in California when I came across a workshop that piqued my curiosity - a presentation by successful farms using no-till techniques. I was already familiar with (and excited about) some successful "low-till" farms like Les Jardins de la Grelinette in Quebec, a project of Jean-Martin Fortier (aka The Market Gardener aka The Six Figure Farmer).

Unsure of what I was getting into, I made my way to the workshop space only to discover that it was already packed to the gills with farmers, old and young, all equally curious and skeptical about the subject matter. As I found a tiny nook in which to perch, it quickly became evident that a larger room was needed - many people were still determinedly trying to stuff themselves in, so they eventually just held the doors open so listeners could hear from outside. Suddenly in spite of the sweaty, overstuffed space I felt a chill, as though something powerful and life-changing was about to happen to me, to everyone in that room. And, as instincts so often do, they proved correct.

Several different farmers presented, with wildly different crops, markets and approaches to the practice of no-till. But they had one thing in common: they were deeply concerned about something called soil carbon. As I learned that day, soil carbon is more or less the blood of the earth, an endlessly renewing, yet finite food that keeps the heart of the farm beating. When we talk about the "organic matter" in the soil, we are mainly talking about soil organic carbon, or the proportion of the soil that consists of plants and animals in various stages of decay, as opposed to mineral material. As FutureFarmers puts it, "Soil organic carbon is the basis of soil fertility. It releases nutrients for plant growth, promotes the structure, biological and physical health of soil, and is a buffer against harmful substances."

Carbon-depleted soil (L) is reddish; carbon-rich soil (R) is brown

In that workshop I learned that most farms have soil carbon in the range of 1-4%, whereas undisturbed earth (rainforests and pre-agricultural soil) has more like 10%. I learned that organic farms and conventional ones are often no different from each other in terms of soil carbon. I learned that this precious organic material volatilizes into the atmosphere when exposed to the sun and wind, literally bonding with oxygen to form an all-too-familiar compound - carbon dioxide. But I also learned that this black gold stays put even more easily - as long as plants shade the soil and hold it firmly in their roots.
As long as you never turn the soil over.

As the presentation continued, a palpable tension was developing in the room. People were getting bright-eyed with excitement, looking sideways at each other to gauge whether the feeling was mutual, scribbling furious notes, standing on chairs to record every word with outstretched smartphones. There was not remotely enough time for questions. And yet, with the growing sense of hope, there was also an undercurrent of dismay as everyone in the audience began to settle into an unsettling idea. What had we been doing to the soil organic matter on our beloved organic farms all these years? Was it still possible to feel proud of our organic status knowing that we had beaten the life out of our soil, and turned it directly into a greenhouse gas contributing to climate change?

Paul Kaiser and his family, Singing Frogs Farm

The uneasiness continued until a farmer named Paul Kaiser presented and shattered our paradigm for good. He began with this quote from a 2010 USDA report, “Tilling the soil is the equivalent of an earthquake, hurricane, tornado, and forest fire occurring simultaneously to the world of soil organisms.” A funereal hush descended over the room, as we all silently kicked ourselves for not knowing this, and then he told us his story.

To make it very short, he was out plowing a new field on the tractor one day when he noticed a killdeer screeching at him on every pass. Upon dismounting from the tractor and examining the freshly turned earth, he discovered not only her nest but millions of chopped up earthworms, snakes, mangled bee hives and numerous other beneficial farm animals he had just destroyed. And so Paul decided there had to be a better way, and stopped tilling. Fortunately he and his wife both had experience with soil health and permanent beds from their education and time in the Peace Corps, so it did not take them long to develop and fully embrace a new system. And, they began to see major benefits so quickly that there was no reason not to.

Within three years Paul's farm had become so efficient, productive and ecologically balanced that weeds, pests and disease virtually disappeared (so spraying ceased), soil organic matter increased to 9%, the farm's per-acre gross income increased to more than $100k (10 times that of most farms in California including vineyards), irrigation was reduced to just a few hours each week, and the 8-acre farm became home to a record 45 nesting pairs of bluebirds. I could write about Paul's farm for hours (since I attended another standing-room-only workshop he did the following year) but I hope readers will visit Singing Frogs Farm to get their grain "straight from the horse's mouth". Nevertheless, here are some basic nuts and bolts of their approach as I understand it:

• They keep the soil covered all. the. time. If for some reason a bed can't be planted right away, they'll cover it with heavy, reusable black cloth to prevent weeds from growing.
• All beds are permanent and raised, maintained as needed by shoveling soil from the pathways onto the beds and topdressing with compost at each planting.
• They transplant as much as possible, and everything is inter-planted. For example, every row of a long-season crop like tomatoes will have short-season crops like lettuce planted on either side. This is to maximize space, increase biodiversity, and keep the soil covered at all times, and means that, at minimum, 1/3 to 1/2 again as many crops are harvested from the same space. Crop rotation becomes irrelevant/unnecessary with such high biodiversity.
• When a crop is harvested, the stem is cut at the soil line and the roots are left in the soil to decompose and be eaten by worms and soil microbes (turning into - you guessed it - soil carbon). A new crop is usually planted between the roots of the last one within 24 hours.
• All work except turning the compost pile is done by hand, by permanent year-round staff who are well-paid. Compost is sourced locally from surrounding towns/neighborhoods.
• Because the soil in the beds is very deep, rich and soft, it acts like a sponge for both heat and moisture. This extends the harvest season so dramatically that they are able to harvest all year-round, even in a cool area with only 120 frost-free days.
• The driverows originally used for tractor turnarounds have been planted with native woody shrubs, which attract birds, snakes and beneficial insects that eat crop pests. (Herbaceous annuals, on the other hand, attract pests.) The elimination of crop pests in turn eliminates a major vector for disease transmission.

 

 

Carbon-rich soil in Paul Kaiser's fields

Probably, like any good grower, you are reading this with a hefty dose of skepticism, and I applaud you for your due diligence - but, if things are going to change, it's time to talk about how. If we're worried about climate change, we need to start considering ways of growing food that use less water, less fossil fuels, and actually sequester carbon in the soil. We have been told that agriculture is a big part of our carbon problem - but it could be a solution too. According to Thomas Goreau, biogeochemist, carbon expert and President of the Global Coral Reefs Alliance, "Supply-side approaches, centered on CO2 sources, amount to reshuffling the Titanic deck chairs if we overlook demand-side solutions: where that carbon can and should go. CO2 cannot be reduced to safe levels in time to avoid serious long-term impacts unless the other side of atmospheric CO2 balance is included."

In other words, if we don't take advantage of powerful carbon sinks like the soil, our weak efforts to reduce emissions simply won't matter. And the soil IS powerful - it currently locks up more carbon than the atmosphere, plants and animals combined - and that's with 50-60% of its carbon already lost to agriculture and development. Estimated conservatively, soil restoration in all degraded ecosystems has the potential to store up to one-third of our current annual emissions from fossil fuels. Put another way, we would need to sequester 3lbs of carbon per square mile over 14 million square miles to reduce carbon levels to pre-industrial levels - it's a big job, but doable. There may be a historical precedent for tillage, but regenerative, no-till agricultural systems will be essential to mitigate climate change now and in the future.


More no-till resources:
Paul Kaiser: The Drought Fighter
More Crops Per Drop: No-Till Farming Combats Drought
John Wick: The Carbon Gatherer
Helen Atthowe: Veganic Permaculture
Carbon Farming: Hope for a Hot Planet
Courtney White: The Carbon Ranch
Allan Savory: How to Fight Desertification and Reduce Climate Change 

How to Prevent Tomato Late Blight Naturally

I believe I have discovered how to keep tomatoes healthy all season long. I can't say with absolute certainty of course (I'm not running a scientific study with controls, and this was an unusually warm, dry year) but, for the first time since 2008, mid-September has arrived with one marked difference: my tomato plants are still producing loads of fruit and flowers, and not a single plant has become diseased. After noting the condition of many friends and neighbors plants, I have concluded that it has indeed been a good growing season. But it is not by accident that my plants are showing off such lush and beautiful growth at a time when most people's are turning yellow and dropping leaves - it seems that a ridiculous amount of research (and trial/error) have finally led me to a simple, natural system for growing healthy, blight-free tomatoes on a farm or garden. I hope that what I've learned can help other growers that have suffered from tomato blight. Perhaps together we can end the use of chemicals on our vegetables, and still get to eat our heirlooms too!

Early stages of tomato Late Blight lesion

Rosemary Oil. Trust me, it works incredibly well as a fungicide (and smells delightful too). I learned about using essential oils one night last summer as I was sitting on my porch, staring sadly at my dying tomato plants and wishing there was something I could do to stop the blight from destroying them. Suddenly, a lightbulb went off in my head - essential oils are powerfully anti-fungal! Within minutes I had found a peer-reviewed scientific study that clearly showed that a variety of essential oils such as rosemary, thyme or oregano kill Late Blight spores on contact with tomato leaves - even in very low concentrations. I began spraying immediately last year, and noticed that it did seem to slow the spread of the disease significantly - but the plants were already too far gone. So it has been incredibly exciting to try it on healthy plants this year, and I couldn't be more pleased with the results.

Conveniently, this is a very affordable solution, since the mixture is diluted. Just mix 4 drops rosemary essential oil with 1 liter of water and spray your plants weekly starting August 1st. Here in the Northeast US, this is the time when tomato plants are beginning to reach the end of their life cycle (fruit/seed production) and are most vulnerable to fungal attack. I believe the reason my plants are so healthy this year is because I began spraying weekly as soon as I saw a leaf with Early Blight lesions - and there have been no other diseased leaves since. Planting herbs like basil between tomato plants doesn't just maximize space--it also means you'll be releasing volatile anti-fungal oils with each harvest!

Pruning. It is standard practice to prune the heck out of tomatoes (removing all suckers) and that is what I had always done until this year. After noticing how the black lesions seemed to climb the plants just as fast as I pruned, it occurred to me that with every cut, a wound is opened that allows any spores in the air direct access to the vascular system of the plant. Also, it seemed that since every branch that grew produced flowers and fruit, it made sense to let them grow naturally rather than pruning them off constantly. That being said, by late July the bottom 12" of leaves were starting to yellow and seemed a likely vector for disease (which is natural given that they are the oldest, first leaves the plant grew way back in April). So this year I tried something different - I didn't prune at all, except to remove the bottom 12" of leaves in late July. Since there is usually no sign of disease yet at this point, you don't have to worry about transferring spores from plant to plant - and by increasing air circulation in the part of the plant that tends to be splashed with water, you're avoiding another vector for disease altogether. At the very end of the season, you can force ripening of any remaining fruits by pruning off the tops of the plants.

Epsom Salts. There always seems to be a point in the season, usually in early or mid-August, when the tomatoes just seem to slow down. Hungry, tired and hot, they just want to quit and sit back with a margarita (sound familiar?!) If you look closely, you'll notice that they have no more flowers on them. If you do nothing at this point, they'll ripen any remaining fruit but the decline will continue into fall. If you water with Epsom salts, however, you'll get a whole new flush of flowers (more fruit), more sugar production (better flavor), and healthier foliage (less disease). Whenever my plants are looking a little tired (usually just once or twice in a season), I water with 1 Tablespoon of Epsom salts per gallon of water.

Tomatoes + beans trellised on CRW (PVC hoops support row cover)

Trellising. Years ago a friend introduced me to a method of trellising tomatoes that has completely transformed my tomato-growing experience. The method is to use sturdy, long-lasting panels of concrete reinforcing wire (CRW) attached with zipties to 6' cedar posts pounded into the ground. The tomatoes are planted between the posts (about 2' below the wire sheets), and are simply woven into the panels as they grow, creating a wall of tomatoes. The advantages are many, but the biggest are: cost (it's very cheap, about $12 to trellis 10 tomato plants), it improves the air circulation around the plants and maximizes space, the plants can put all their energy into fruit, and harvest is as easy as picking tomatoes off a store shelf. Best of all, the CRW sheets are readily available at any home improvement store, and are strong enough to last 20 years or more. If you prefer, you can also use hog or cattle fencing, which can be cut to size - just be sure that whatever you use is sturdy enough to hold the hundreds of pounds of tomatoes you can grow this way!

Soil + Containers. I always experiment with some container tomatoes, even when I have a garden full of them, in the hopes that I'll further extend the season on both ends. But almost inevitably, the plants in containers get stressed by lack of water or nutrients - and as a result they produce less and start their end-of-season decline earlier. The lesson? Tomatoes need good soil and plenty of water all the time in order to thrive. If you have to grow in containers, I suggest large 2-5 gallon self-watering containers that can be easily accessed for watering every morning. In raised beds, watering weekly will be required if it doesn't rain. And plants, like all creatures, need food - especially when they are young and growing quickly - so I topdress with organic compost around the plants at planting and again a month later, around July 1st.

I hope these tips will help you in your quest for healthy tomatoes. As always, I welcome your feedback, garden fantasies + botanical mysteries! **Comments are now open to the public :)

~ Sophia